Transition paths out of social fragmentation: The South African state, social welfare and nation building, 1950-2015

State formation in ‘South Africa’ since colonial domination in the nineteenth century occurred as a process of social fragmentation under colonial allegiance and economic domination. Britain entrenched state power to white society through the constitution of the Union of South Africa. Social fragmentation occurred on two levels: between white and indigenous African and other peoples of colour on one level and between English-speaking European settler and the emerging local Afrikaner society in South Africa on another. The dominant white society engineered economic modernisation and development, using entrepreneurial self-empowerment and State Owned Enterprises in a mixed economy. Social fragmentation manifested in ethnic and cultural diversity and fragmented democracy. South Africa led the Commonwealth in introducing the first universal pension provision, albeit racially differentiated. As the Western world used state welfare programmes to address social fragmentation post-1945, welfare programmes were racially fragmented. A model of peaceful racial coexistence in separate ethnically differentiated states was enforced. In the post-1945 simple majority rule state, this political model was internationally criticised as ‘undemocratic’. Increasing opposition to social and political fragmentation resulted in the abdication of the white-controlled state to a single majority rule in 1994. State power subsequently reinforced social fragmentation based on race. Global market liberalisation swept across Africa, but a modified political economy of state power after 1990 re-instituted racial discrimination for so-called restitution of historical disadvantages.