Quantification of Acetaminophen, Ibuprofen, and β-Blockers in Wastewater and River Water Bodies During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The consumption of pharmaceuticals during the COVID-19 pandemic increased significantly. As such, over-the-counter drugs such as acetaminophen (ACT), ibuprofen (IBU), metoprolol (MET), and propranolol (PRO) were among the pharmaceuticals that were widely used to contain COVID-19 symptoms. Therefore, this study investigated the occurrence of ACT, IBU, MET, and PRO in wastewater and river water systems, focusing on two provinces in South Africa (Gauteng (GP) and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN)). Generally, WWTP influents had the highest concentrations in both provinces. ACT, MET, and PRO were frequently detected compared to ibuprofen, particularly in KZN, during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, a low detection occurred during the fourth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The concentrations of ACT, IBU, MET, and PRO in influent wastewater samples ranged from ND-480 µg/L, ND-54.1 µg/L, ND-52.8 µg/L, to ND-13.1 µg/L, respectively. In comparison with influent samples, ACT, IBU, MET, and PRO concentrations of effluent wastewater samples were generally at lower concentration levels: ACT (ND-289 µg/L), IBU (ND-36.1 µg/L), MET (ND-13.9 µg/L), and PRO (ND-5.53 µg/L). The removal efficiencies of the selected pharmaceuticals in KZN WWTPs ranged from 6.1 to 100% and −362.6 to 100% in the GP province. The ecological risk assessment results showed a low to high ecological risk against fish, Daphnia magna, and algae due to the presence of these pharmaceuticals.