Lanthanides and their complexes/nanoparticles: A review of cancer diagnosis, therapeutics, toxicity considerations, and clinical trials

Cancer is a severe worldwide health challenge and is predicted to surge in morbidity and mortality over the next few decades. Current cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation, do not often show efficacy at progressive stages, therefore requiring the advancement of new therapies. As a result, lanthanide compounds have emerged as a viable strategy for the diagnosis and therapeutics of cancer owing to their vital redox ligand modification interactions impacting DNA structure, protein expression, and membrane integrity, as well as their structural alteration and distinctive radioisotopes. In this review, the utilization of lanthanide complexes in cancer treatment and diagnosis, as well as their toxicology and evaluation in clinical trials, will be covered. In addition, the discussion of the mode of action of the lanthanide-based compounds as anticancer agents will also be reviewed.