Hydrogeochemistry, sources, enrichment mechanism and human health risk assessment of groundwater fluoride in Saboba District in the Oti sub-basin of the Volta River Basin, northern Ghana

This study was aimed at appraising the hydrogeochemistry of groundwater and the possible health hazards linked to elevated fluoride (F⁻) levels in the Saboba District within the Oti sub-basin of the Volta River Basin of northern Ghana. Multivariate statistical analysis, hydrogeochemistry, thermodynamic calculation of mineral saturation indices, and an evaluation of the risk to human health were all used in this assessment. A tFrilinear Piper diagram revealed that K–HCO₃ was the predominant water type, reflecting the local geology. Groundwater F⁻ content varied, with an average of 1.33 mg/L and a range of 0.6–4.7 mg/L, with elevated values mainly in the northwestern fringe of the district. Groundwater F⁻ is mostly enriched by geogenic processes including mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and water-rock interaction. The non-carcinogenic risk of F⁻ exposure followed the pattern: children > teenagers > adults > infants, indicating that children are more susceptible to health risks such as dental fluorosis that come with exposure to F⁻. Therefore, expert-led community education programs can be extremely important in spreading this important knowledge and sustainable F⁻ remediation measures should be urgently put in place to curb the menace.