E-Textiles in Biomedicine: Real Time Sensing, Energy Storage, and Therapeutic Applications

Electronic textiles represent a transformation in wearable biomedicine by integrating sensing, actuation, data communication, and therapeutic delivery into lightweight and deformable fabric. Recent advancements in conductive polymers, carbon nanomaterials, and natural fiber composites have significantly enhanced the strain sensitivity, mechanical durability, and long-term biocompatibility of e-textiles. This review synthesizes the current state of the art in e-textile materials and addresses three core research questions: fabrication technologies and materials, sensing mechanisms, and energy harvesting and storage systems. Hybrid materials incorporating PEDOT: PSS-coated polyurethane, graphene-silver composites with sheet resistance, silk-polypyrrole hydrogels, and ZnO-patterned piezoelectric structures demonstrate tunable conductivity, exceptional stretchability, and multi-responsive properties. Multimodal sensing technologies, such as capacitive, resistive, bioimpedance, piezoelectric, tribioelectric, and optical, enable real-time monitoring of cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, and biochemical markers. Self-healing ionogel fibers with a dynamic covalent network and a degradable thermoset provide durability and sustainability. Further, integrating an energy system comprising supercapacitors, triboelectric nanogenerators, and piezoelectric fibers eliminates the need for batteries. Closed-loop therapeutic systems autonomously modulate treatment based on biosensor feedback, including glucose-responsive drug delivery and electroactive wound healing. Challenges remain in long-term reliability, standardization, and large-scale manufacturability. This review identifies future directions encompassing artificial intelligence integration, biodegradable materials, and multi-modal sensor fusion to advance clinical translation of e-textile platforms for personalized, preventive, and decentralized healthcare.