Comparative analysis of volatile profiles and antimicrobial activities of freeze-dried and oven-dried pomegranate seeds: implications for waste valorization in a circular economy

Pomegranate (Punica granatum), an ancient and well-recognized fruit, is highly valued in traditional medicine and the food industry for its rich composition of phytochemicals. This research investigated the effect of freeze-drying (FD) and oven-drying (OD) on the aroma profile and antibacterial activity of pomegranate seed essential oils (EOs). The aromatic compounds were evaluated using four different extraction techniques—hydrodistillation (HD), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), and simultaneous hydrodistillation extraction (SHDE) for comparison. Antibacterial activity of the EO was tested in 7 microorganisms, including 3 Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus), 3 Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae), and yeast (Candida albicans). A total 93 compounds (FD) and 55 compounds (OD) were identified, belonging to groups such as carbonyls, fatty acids, esters, furans, alcohols, lactones, and other unspecified categories. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the antimicrobial properties of the EOs between the two drying methods. E. coli exhibited the highest resistance to the tested EOs as its growth remained uninhibited. K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa demonstrated resistance, with no inhibitory effects observed except at the highest concentrations tested (4550 µg∙g⁻¹ and 4580 µg∙g⁻¹). Among the Gram-positive bacteria, S. aureus was inhibited at 4550 µg∙g⁻¹ and 4580 µg∙g⁻¹, B. cereus at 4550 µg∙g⁻¹ and 2425–4580 µg∙g⁻¹, and E. faecalis at 2275 µg∙g⁻¹ and 2425–4850 µg∙g⁻¹, while C. albicans was the most susceptible (1138 µg∙g⁻¹ and 1213 µg∙g⁻¹). SFE proved effective in extracting fatty acids, particularly saturated fatty acids (SFAs), while HD and SHDE were most effective in extracting carbonyl compounds.