A systematic review and meta-analysis of pedagogical trends and impact in neuroanatomy education

Neuroanatomy is notoriously challenging to learn and often contributes to “neurophobia.” Traditional instruction has relied on lectures and dissection, but newer pedagogical innovations are increasingly adopted. Despite this, comparative evidence to guide best practices is limited. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to synthesize the literature on neuroanatomy teaching interventions, and quantitatively assess pooled effects on (1) short-term knowledge retention, (2) long-term knowledge retention, and (3) learner satisfaction. Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science for studies published between January 2000 and February 2025. Eligible studies described defined neuroanatomy teaching interventions for post-secondary learners. Those reporting knowledge or satisfaction outcomes were included in the meta-analysis. Two reviewers independently performed screening, extraction, and methodological quality assessment using the MERSQI. Random-effects meta-analyses generated pooled standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). From 11,438 records, 195 studies met inclusion for qualitative synthesis, most often involving digital/web-based applications (n = 38), immersive technologies (n = 22), or 3D models (n = 18). Overall methodological quality was moderate. Students valued interventions promoting 3D reasoning, clinical integration, and active learning. Thirty-seven studies contributed to meta-analysis. Computer/web-based applications showed consistent benefit for short-term knowledge (SMD = 1.69; 95% CI [0.32, 3.06]). Evidence for long-term knowledge retention and satisfaction was less robust. In conclusion, neuroanatomy education is shifting toward blended curricula integrating digital tools, models, and active pedagogies. Computer/web-based applications are most consistently effective for short-term learning; further research should emphasize long-term outcomes.